Astaxanthin is a naturally occurring carotenoid pigment found in various marine organisms, including microalgae, yeast, salmon, trout, krill, shrimp, and crayfish. This compound is responsible for the pink-red coloration in these species, most notably exemplified by the vibrant hue of salmon and flamingos. Astaxanthin is structurally similar to other carotenoids like beta-carotene, lutein, and zeaxanthin, but it stands out due to its unique molecular structure that provides exceptional antioxidant properties.

Astaxanthin belongs to the xanthophyll class of carotenoids, which means it contains oxygen atoms in its molecular structure, differentiating it from other carotenoids like beta-carotene which are purely hydrocarbons. This particular structure allows astaxanthin to span the cellular membrane, providing protection against oxidative stress both inside and outside the cell. Unlike some other antioxidants, astaxanthin does not become a pro-oxidant in the body, making it a very safe supplement to consume.

The primary natural source of astaxanthin is the microalga Haematococcus pluvialis, which produces it in high quantities as a protective mechanism against environmental stressors such as intense sunlight and nutrient deficiency. This microalga is often cultivated commercially to produce astaxanthin supplements. The compound can also be synthetically produced, but natural astaxanthin is generally preferred due to its higher bioavailability and safety profile.

Astaxanthin is used for a variety of health benefits due to its potent antioxidant properties. One of its most notable applications is in promoting skin health. Studies have shown that astaxanthin can help improve skin elasticity, reduce wrinkles, and increase moisture content. For instance, a systematic review and meta-analysis published in Nutrients found that oral astaxanthin supplementation significantly improved skin elasticity and moisture content while reducing wrinkle depth in humans (Zhou et al., 2021). This makes it a popular ingredient in both oral supplements and topical skincare products aimed at anti-aging and skin protection.

Astaxanthin is also recognized for its role in supporting eye health. Its antioxidant properties help protect the eyes from oxidative stress, which can contribute to conditions like age-related macular degeneration and cataracts. Although human studies are somewhat limited, animal studies have suggested that astaxanthin can protect retinal cells from damage and improve visual acuity. For instance, a study published in Molecular Vision demonstrated that astaxanthin supplementation reduced oxidative damage in retinal cells of rats (Li et al., 2018).

Another significant use of astaxanthin is in cardiovascular health. Research indicates that astaxanthin can help reduce oxidative stress and inflammation, which are key factors in the development of cardiovascular diseases. A study published in The Journal of Nutrition found that astaxanthin supplementation improved cholesterol and lipid metabolism in mice, potentially mitigating the progression of atherosclerosis (Yang et al., 2011). These findings suggest that astaxanthin could be beneficial in maintaining heart health, although more extensive human trials are needed to confirm these effects.

In addition to these applications, astaxanthin is also explored for its potential benefits in muscle endurance, immune support, and cognitive health. An article in The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness reported that astaxanthin supplementation in elite soccer players helped reduce muscle damage and oxidative stress markers (Djordjevic et al., 2012). Given its broad range of potential health benefits, astaxanthin continues to be a subject of active research in various fields of medicine and nutrition.

Astaxanthin works primarily through its potent antioxidant properties. As an antioxidant, it neutralizes free radicals—unstable molecules that can cause oxidative stress and damage cells. This oxidative stress is linked to a variety of chronic diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, and certain types of cancer. What makes astaxanthin particularly effective is its unique molecular structure, which allows it to span the cellular membrane and provide protection both inside and outside the cell.

One of the key mechanisms by which astaxanthin exerts its effects is through the activation of the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway. Nrf2 is a transcription factor that regulates the expression of various antioxidant proteins and enzymes. Studies have shown that astaxanthin activates the Nrf2 pathway, leading to an increase in the expression of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and glutathione peroxidase. This activation enhances the body's natural antioxidant defenses, helping to mitigate oxidative damage (Saw et al., 2013).

Astaxanthin also has anti-inflammatory properties, which further contribute to its health benefits. It inhibits the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) pathway, a key regulator of inflammation. By suppressing this pathway, astaxanthin reduces the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), as well as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). This anti-inflammatory action helps in reducing chronic inflammation, which is a contributing factor to many chronic diseases (Chen et al., 2020).

Another intriguing aspect of astaxanthin's mechanism is its ability to protect cellular components from oxidative damage. For example, it helps stabilize cell membranes by incorporating itself into the lipid bilayer, preventing lipid peroxidation. Lipid peroxidation is a process where free radicals damage the lipids in cell membranes, leading to cell death and tissue damage. Astaxanthin's ability to inhibit this process is particularly beneficial for maintaining the integrity of cells and tissues (Palozza & Krinsky, 1992).

In summary, astaxanthin's multifaceted approach to protecting the body involves potent antioxidant activity, anti-inflammatory effects, and stabilization of cellular components. These combined actions make it a powerful compound for promoting overall health and preventing various diseases.

Astaxanthin is utilized in both men's and women's health, but there are some nuanced differences in its applications based on specific health concerns prevalent in each gender. While the core benefits of astaxanthin, such as its potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, are universally applicable, certain health conditions and cosmetic needs lead to gender-specific uses.

In women's health, astaxanthin is particularly celebrated for its role in skin health and anti-aging. Women often seek supplements that can help improve skin elasticity, reduce wrinkles, and enhance overall skin appearance. Studies have demonstrated that astaxanthin can significantly improve skin hydration, elasticity, and reduce the presence of fine lines and wrinkles. For instance, a study published in the Journal of Medicinal Food found that a combination of astaxanthin and collagen hydrolysate improved facial elasticity and reduced the expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), enzymes that break down collagen, thus promoting healthier, more youthful skin in female participants (Yoon et al., 2014).

In addition to skin health, astaxanthin has been studied for its potential benefits in reducing menstrual pain and improving overall reproductive health. Due to its anti-inflammatory properties, astaxanthin may help alleviate symptoms associated with menstrual discomfort and endometriosis, a condition that affects many women and involves painful inflammation of the uterine lining.

For men, astaxanthin is often highlighted for its cardiovascular and muscle endurance benefits. Men are generally more prone to cardiovascular diseases, and astaxanthin's ability to reduce oxidative stress and inflammation can be particularly beneficial. A study published in The Journal of Nutrition showed that astaxanthin improved lipid profiles and reduced oxidative stress markers in male subjects, suggesting a protective effect against cardiovascular diseases (Yang et al., 2011).

Moreover, in the realm of athletic performance and muscle recovery, astaxanthin is used by men to enhance endurance and reduce muscle damage. A study in The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness reported that astaxanthin supplementation helped reduce muscle damage and oxidative stress in elite male soccer players, indicating its potential to improve physical performance and recovery (Djordjevic et al., 2012).

In summary, while both men and women can benefit from the general health-promoting properties of astaxanthin, its specific applications often align with gender-specific health concerns. Women may focus more on skin health and reproductive benefits, whereas men might prioritize cardiovascular health and athletic performance.

The optimal dosage of astaxanthin can vary depending on the specific health benefits you're seeking and your individual health status. Generally, dosages ranging from 4 mg to 12 mg per day are commonly recommended for most purposes, with some studies using dosages as high as 20 mg per day for specific conditions. It's important to note that while astaxanthin is considered safe, it's always best to start with a lower dose and gradually increase it, monitoring for any adverse effects.

For general antioxidant support and overall health benefits, a daily dosage of 4 mg to 6 mg is typically sufficient. This dosage has been shown to improve skin health, enhance immune function, and provide cardiovascular benefits. A systematic review and meta-analysis published in Nutrients highlighted that a daily intake of 4 mg to 6 mg of astaxanthin was effective in improving skin elasticity and hydration, making it a popular choice for those looking to support skin health (Zhou et al., 2021).

For more specific health concerns, such as reducing oxidative stress and inflammation, higher dosages may be more effective. For instance, athletes and individuals seeking to improve muscle endurance and recovery may benefit from dosages in the range of 8 mg to 12 mg per day. A study in The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness found that 12 mg of astaxanthin per day helped reduce muscle damage and oxidative stress in elite soccer players (Djordjevic et al., 2012).

In some cases, even higher dosages have been explored. For example, a study published in Food & Function investigated the effects of 15 mg per day of astaxanthin on brain aging and found significant improvements in antioxidant enzyme activities and mitochondrial function (Liu et al., 2020). However, such high dosages are typically reserved for specific research contexts and should be approached cautiously.

It's worth noting that the timing of supplementation can also play a role in its effectiveness. Astaxanthin is fat-soluble, so taking it with a meal that contains healthy fats can enhance its absorption. As always, it's advisable to consult with a healthcare provider before starting any new supplement regimen, especially if you have underlying health conditions or are taking other medications.

Astaxanthin is generally considered safe and well-tolerated when taken at recommended dosages. However, like any supplement, it can cause side effects in some individuals. The majority of these side effects are mild and temporary, but it’s important to be aware of them and monitor your response when starting supplementation.

One of the most commonly reported side effects of astaxanthin is gastrointestinal discomfort. This can include symptoms such as stomach pain, bloating, and diarrhea. These issues are typically mild and often resolve on their own as the body adjusts to the supplement. To reduce the risk of gastrointestinal side effects, it’s advisable to take astaxanthin with food, particularly a meal that contains healthy fats, which can also enhance its absorption.

In some cases, individuals may experience changes in skin pigmentation. Astaxanthin is a carotenoid, similar to beta-carotene found in carrots, and high doses can cause a slight orange or pinkish tint to the skin. This side effect is generally harmless and reversible, disappearing once the supplement is discontinued or the dosage is reduced. However, it can be more noticeable in people with lighter skin tones.

Other potential side effects, although rare, include hormonal imbalances. Astaxanthin can influence hormone levels and may affect libido or menstrual cycles in some individuals. While these effects are not commonly reported, it’s important to be mindful of any changes and consult with a healthcare provider if you have concerns, particularly if you have a history of hormonal issues.

Overall, astaxanthin is well-tolerated by most people, but it’s always prudent to start with a lower dose and gradually increase it, monitoring for any adverse effects. If you experience any persistent or troubling symptoms, it’s essential to consult with a healthcare provider to ensure the supplement is appropriate for your individual health needs.

While astaxanthin is generally considered safe for most people, there are certain groups who should exercise caution or avoid taking this supplement. Understanding these considerations can help ensure safe and effective use.

Firstly, individuals with known allergies to seafood should be cautious when taking astaxanthin supplements. Astaxanthin is naturally found in marine organisms like salmon, krill, and shrimp. Although the supplement form is often derived from microalgae, there is still a potential for cross-reactivity in those with seafood allergies.

Pregnant and breastfeeding women should also consult with a healthcare provider before taking astaxanthin. While there is some preliminary evidence suggesting that astaxanthin can be beneficial during pregnancy due to its antioxidant properties, there is not enough comprehensive research to confirm its safety for this group. Therefore, it's best to err on the side of caution and seek medical advice.

Individuals with autoimmune conditions should be aware that astaxanthin can modulate the immune system. While this can be beneficial for enhancing immune function, it may also exacerbate certain autoimmune conditions by potentially triggering an overactive immune response. People with autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, or multiple sclerosis should consult their healthcare provider before starting astaxanthin supplementation.

Those undergoing treatment for a medical condition or taking prescription medications should also speak with their healthcare provider before introducing astaxanthin into their regimen. Astaxanthin may interact with certain medications, such as blood thinners, and could potentially alter their effectiveness or increase the risk of side effects.

Lastly, individuals with low blood pressure or those taking antihypertensive medications should use astaxanthin with caution. Some studies suggest that astaxanthin may help lower blood pressure, which could be beneficial for those with hypertension. However, for individuals who already have low blood pressure or are on medication to manage their blood pressure, this effect could lead to hypotension (abnormally low blood pressure).

In summary, while astaxanthin is generally safe for most individuals, those with allergies to seafood, pregnant or breastfeeding women, individuals with autoimmune conditions, those on certain medications, and people with low blood pressure should consult with a healthcare provider before starting supplementation. This ensures that it is safe and appropriate for their specific health circumstances.

Astaxanthin supplements are generally considered safe, but like many supplements, they can interact with certain medications. Understanding these potential interactions is crucial for ensuring that astaxanthin can be safely incorporated into your health regimen without adverse effects.

One of the primary concerns is the interaction between astaxanthin and blood-thinning medications, such as warfarin (Coumadin) and aspirin. Astaxanthin's antioxidant properties can enhance the effects of these medications, potentially increasing the risk of bleeding. This is particularly important for individuals who are already on anticoagulant therapy for conditions such as atrial fibrillation, deep vein thrombosis, or after certain surgeries. If you are taking blood thinners, it’s essential to consult your healthcare provider before starting astaxanthin supplements.

Astaxanthin may also interact with antihypertensive medications, which are used to manage high blood pressure. Some studies suggest that astaxanthin can help lower blood pressure, which might be beneficial for those with hypertension. However, if you are already taking medication to control your blood pressure, the combined effects could lead to hypotension, or abnormally low blood pressure. Symptoms of hypotension can include dizziness, fainting, and blurred vision, so it’s important to monitor your blood pressure closely and discuss any new supplements with your healthcare provider.

Another area of potential interaction is with immunosuppressant drugs. Astaxanthin can modulate the immune system, enhancing immune function, which might counteract the effects of immunosuppressant medications. These drugs are commonly prescribed for individuals who have undergone organ transplants or who have autoimmune diseases. If you are taking immunosuppressants, it’s crucial to consult your healthcare provider before using astaxanthin to avoid compromising your treatment.

Lastly, astaxanthin may affect the metabolism of certain medications by influencing liver enzymes that are responsible for drug breakdown. This can alter the effectiveness of drugs metabolized by the liver, either reducing their efficacy or increasing the risk of side effects. Medications that might be affected include statins (used for lowering cholesterol), certain antidepressants, and oral contraceptives.

In summary, while astaxanthin is generally safe, it can interact with blood thinners, antihypertensive medications, immunosuppressants, and drugs metabolized by liver enzymes. It’s always best to consult with a healthcare provider before starting any new supplement, particularly if you are on prescription medications, to ensure there are no adverse interactions and that it is safe for your specific health situation.

Astaxanthin is found in a variety of natural sources, primarily marine organisms. Understanding the best sources can help you make informed decisions about how to incorporate this potent antioxidant into your diet or supplement regimen.

The most concentrated natural source of astaxanthin is the microalga Haematococcus pluvialis. This microalga produces astaxanthin as a protective mechanism against environmental stressors such as intense sunlight and nutrient scarcity. Haematococcus pluvialis is often cultivated commercially to extract astaxanthin for supplements due to its high concentration of the compound. Supplements derived from this microalga are generally considered superior because they contain natural astaxanthin, which is more bioavailable and effective compared to synthetic forms.

Marine animals that consume astaxanthin-rich microalgae also serve as good dietary sources. Wild-caught salmon, particularly sockeye salmon, is one of the richest sources of astaxanthin. The pink-red coloration of salmon flesh is a direct result of astaxanthin accumulation. Regular consumption of wild-caught salmon can provide a natural intake of astaxanthin, along with other beneficial nutrients like omega-3 fatty acids. Studies have shown that consuming salmon can contribute to improved antioxidant status and overall health (Chung et al., 2017).

Other seafood such as trout, krill, shrimp, and crayfish are also significant sources of astaxanthin. Krill oil, in particular, has gained popularity as a supplement not only for its astaxanthin content but also for its rich profile of omega-3 fatty acids. Krill oil supplements often tout the added benefit of astaxanthin, which helps protect the delicate omega-3 fatty acids from oxidation.

For those who prefer plant-based sources or are allergic to seafood, astaxanthin supplements derived from Haematococcus pluvialis are an excellent alternative. These supplements are available in various forms, including capsules, softgels, and even liquids. When choosing a supplement, it’s important to look for products that specify the source of astaxanthin and opt for those derived from natural sources like Haematococcus pluvialis for maximum efficacy.

In summary, the best sources of astaxanthin include the microalga Haematococcus pluvialis, wild-caught salmon, and other marine animals like trout, krill, shrimp, and crayfish. For those seeking plant-based or allergen-free options, supplements derived from Haematococcus pluvialis offer a potent and bioavailable form of this powerful antioxidant.

Astaxanthin is available in various forms, each designed to cater to different preferences and needs, making it convenient for consumers to incorporate this potent antioxidant into their daily routines. Understanding the different forms can help you choose the most suitable option for your lifestyle and health goals.

One of the most common forms of astaxanthin is in capsules or softgels. These are widely available and are a convenient way to ensure a consistent daily dose. Capsules and softgels often contain astaxanthin extracted from the microalga Haematococcus pluvialis, combined with a carrier oil to enhance absorption since astaxanthin is fat-soluble. This form is particularly popular because it is easy to take and can be incorporated into a daily supplement regimen without much hassle.

Astaxanthin is also available in liquid form. Liquid astaxanthin supplements are typically mixed with a carrier oil like olive oil or coconut oil to improve bioavailability. This form can be beneficial for those who have difficulty swallowing capsules or prefer to mix their supplements into smoothies, juices, or other beverages. Liquid astaxanthin can also offer more flexible dosing options, allowing users to adjust their intake more easily.

For those who prefer a more natural approach, astaxanthin can be consumed through dietary sources such as wild-caught salmon, trout, krill, shrimp, and crayfish. These foods naturally contain astaxanthin due to their diet of astaxanthin-rich microalgae. Incorporating these foods into your diet can provide the benefits of astaxanthin along with other essential nutrients.

Topical formulations of astaxanthin are another option, especially for those interested in its skin health benefits. Astaxanthin creams, serums, and lotions are designed to be applied directly to the skin, where they can help improve skin elasticity, reduce wrinkles, and protect against UV-induced damage. These topical products often combine astaxanthin with other beneficial ingredients to enhance overall skin health.

Lastly, astaxanthin is sometimes included in combination supplements that target specific health concerns, such as eye health, cardiovascular health, or skin health. These combination products may include other antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals to provide a synergistic effect. For example, a supplement targeting eye health might combine astaxanthin with lutein and zeaxanthin, both of which are also beneficial for vision.

In summary, astaxanthin is available in various forms including capsules, softgels, liquid formulations, dietary sources, and topical applications. Each form offers unique advantages, making it easy to incorporate this powerful antioxidant into your health regimen according to your individual needs and preferences.

Astaxanthin itself is a highly potent antioxidant, but its efficacy can be influenced by the presence of its various isomers and related carotenoids. Understanding these sub-compounds can provide a more comprehensive picture of how astaxanthin works and why it is so effective.

Astaxanthin exists in several isomeric forms, primarily the all-trans (all-E) and various cis (Z) isomers. These isomers differ slightly in their molecular structure, which can influence their antioxidant capacity and bioavailability. Research has shown that the cis isomers, particularly the 9-cis and 13-cis forms, may have higher antioxidant activity compared to the all-trans form. A study published in Marine Drugs demonstrated that Z-isomer-rich astaxanthin exhibited greater protective effects against UV-induced skin damage compared to the all-trans form, likely due to its enhanced UV-light-shielding ability (Honda et al., 2022). Therefore, the presence and ratio of these isomers can be critical to the overall efficacy of astaxanthin supplements.

Another important sub-compound related to astaxanthin's efficacy is the presence of other carotenoids that often accompany it in natural sources. For example, in Haematococcus pluvialis, the microalga from which astaxanthin is frequently derived, other carotenoids such as lutein, beta-carotene, and canthaxanthin are also present. These carotenoids can work synergistically with astaxanthin, enhancing its antioxidant properties and providing additional health benefits. For instance, lutein and zeaxanthin are known for their role in eye health, and their presence alongside astaxanthin can offer a broader spectrum of protection against oxidative stress in ocular tissues.

Additionally, the esterified form of astaxanthin, where the molecule is bound to fatty acids, can also influence its efficacy. Esterified astaxanthin is more stable and may have better bioavailability compared to its free form. This means that esterified astaxanthin is more efficiently absorbed and utilized by the body, enhancing its overall effectiveness. Many high-quality astaxanthin supplements contain a mixture of free and esterified forms to optimize absorption and efficacy.

Lastly, the presence of accompanying fatty acids in astaxanthin supplements can improve its absorption and bioavailability. Given that astaxanthin is fat-soluble, combining it with oils such as olive oil, coconut oil, or fish oil can significantly enhance its uptake in the body. This is why many astaxanthin supplements are formulated with a lipid base, ensuring that the antioxidant is delivered effectively to the tissues where it is needed most.

In summary, the efficacy of astaxanthin can be influenced by its isomeric forms, the presence of synergistic carotenoids, the esterified form of the molecule, and the inclusion of fatty acids to enhance absorption. These factors collectively contribute to the potent antioxidant and health-promoting properties of astaxanthin.

Astaxanthin is known by several names and can sometimes be referred to by its chemical properties or ingredients found in supplements. Here are some of the common synonyms, abbreviations, and related terms:

1. Astaxanthin (AST or ASX): These abbreviations are often used in scientific literature and product labels to denote astaxanthin.
2. 3,3'-Dihydroxy-β,β-carotene-4,4'-dione: This is the chemical name for astaxanthin, reflecting its structure as a carotenoid with hydroxyl and keto groups.
3. Xanthophyll: Astaxanthin belongs to the xanthophyll class of carotenoids, which are oxygenated derivatives of carotenes.
4. Microalgae-derived astaxanthin: This term is frequently used to specify astaxanthin obtained from microalgae, particularly Haematococcus pluvialis, which is a primary natural source.
5. Carotenoid Complex: In some supplements, astaxanthin is part of a broader blend of carotenoids, including beta-carotene, lutein, and zeaxanthin.
6. Krill Oil: Astaxanthin is a natural component of krill oil, which is often marketed for its omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidant properties, including astaxanthin.
7. Marine Antioxidant: This term is sometimes used in marketing materials to describe astaxanthin due to its origin from marine organisms like microalgae and seafood.
8. Pink Algae: While not a scientifically accurate term, some marketing materials may refer to the microalgae Haematococcus pluvialis as "pink algae" due to its red-pink coloration when it produces astaxanthin.

Common misspellings of astaxanthin include:

1. Asthaxanthin
2. Astaxantin
3. Axtaxanthin
4. Astazanthin

These variations often appear in informal writing or marketing materials but refer to the same compound.

In summary, astaxanthin is known by several names and abbreviations, including AST, ASX, 3,3'-Dihydroxy-β,β-carotene-4,4'-dione, xanthophyll, microalgae-derived astaxanthin, carotenoid complex, krill oil, marine antioxidant, and sometimes is colloquially referred to as pink algae. Common misspellings include asthaxanthin, astaxantin, axtaxanthin, and astazanthin. These various terms help identify astaxanthin across different contexts and product formulations.

When selecting an astaxanthin supplement, it's essential to consider several key factors to ensure you're choosing a high-quality product. Here’s what to look for on the label:

1. Source of Astaxanthin: The label should clearly state the source of astaxanthin. The most effective and natural form of astaxanthin is derived from the microalga Haematococcus pluvialis. Avoid products that do not specify the source or those that rely on synthetic astaxanthin, as natural astaxanthin is generally more potent and bioavailable.
2. Dosage: Check the amount of astaxanthin per serving. Common dosages range from 4 mg to 12 mg per day, depending on the intended use. Ensure that the dosage aligns with what has been shown to be effective in scientific studies for your specific health goals.
3. Form of Astaxanthin: Look for information about whether the astaxanthin is in its esterified form, as this form is more stable and may have better bioavailability. The presence of both free and esterified forms can indicate a well-formulated product.
4. Additional Ingredients: Since astaxanthin is fat-soluble, it is often combined with oils to enhance absorption. High-quality supplements may include carrier oils such as olive oil, coconut oil, or fish oil. Ensure these oils are listed on the label and are of high quality. Avoid products with unnecessary fillers, artificial colors, or preservatives.
5. Purity and Potency: Look for third-party testing or certifications that verify the purity and potency of the product. Reputable brands often provide Certificates of Analysis (COAs) from independent laboratories to confirm that the supplement contains the stated amount of astaxanthin and is free from contaminants like heavy metals, pesticides, and microbial impurities.
6. Manufacturing Standards: Check if the supplement is manufactured in facilities that follow Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP). GMP certification ensures that the product is produced in a controlled environment that meets high standards for quality and safety.
7. Non-GMO and Natural Claims: Opt for products that are labeled as non-GMO and natural. These labels indicate that the astaxanthin is sourced from non-genetically modified organisms and is free from synthetic additives.
8. Brand Reputation: Research the brand and look for customer reviews and ratings. A reputable brand with positive feedback is more likely to provide a high-quality product. Brands that are transparent about their sourcing, manufacturing processes, and third-party testing are generally more trustworthy.

In summary, when choosing an astaxanthin supplement, prioritize products that clearly state the source of astaxanthin (preferably Haematococcus pluvialis), list an appropriate dosage, use high-quality carrier oils, and provide third-party testing for purity and potency. Additionally, ensure the supplement is manufactured according to GMP standards and consider the brand's reputation and transparency. These considerations will help you select a high-quality astaxanthin supplement that is both effective and safe.

The information provided on this website, including any text, images, or other material contained within, is for informational purposes only. It is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified healthcare provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition. This page was created by the SuppCo editiorial team, with AI summarization tools, including data from but not limited to following studies:

1. Nuo Heng, Shan Gao, Yu Chen, Liang Wang, Zheng Li, Yong Guo, Xihui Sheng, Xiangguo Wang, K. Xing, Longfei Xiao, Hemin Ni, Xiaolong Qi (2021). Dietary supplementation with natural astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis improves antioxidant enzyme activity, free radical scavenging ability, and gene expression of antioxidant enzymes in laying hens. Poultry Science, 100, . Link: 10.1016/j.psj.2021.101045
2. C. L. Saw, A. Yang, Yue Guo, A. Kong (2013). Astaxanthin and omega-3 fatty acids individually and in combination protect against oxidative stress via the Nrf2-ARE pathway.. Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association, 62,
   869-75 . Link: 10.1016/j.fct.2013.10.023
3. Tingting Niu, Rongrong Xuan, Ligang Jiang, Wei Wu, Zhan Zhen, Yuling Song, Lili Hong, Kaiqin Zheng, Jiaxing Zhang, Qingshan Xu, Yinghong Tan, Xiaojun Yan, Haimin Chen (2018). Astaxanthin Induces the Nrf2/HO-1 Antioxidant Pathway in Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells by Generating Trace Amounts of ROS.. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 66 6,
   1551-1559 . Link: 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b05493
4. Han Liu, Xuguang Zhang, Jie Xiao, Mingyue Song, Yong Cao, Hang Xiao, Xiaojuan Liu (2020). Astaxanthin attenuates d-galactose-induced brain aging in rats by ameliorating oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and regulating metabolic markers.. Food & function, , . Link: 10.1039/d0fo00633e
5. Zhiqing Chen, Jie Xiao, Han Liu, Kangfei Yao, Xiaoning Hou, Yong Cao, Xiaojuan Liu (2020). Astaxanthin attenuates oxidative stress and immune impairment in D-galactose-induced aging in rats by activating the Nrf2/Keap1 pathway and suppressing the NF-κB pathway.. Food & function, , . Link: 10.1039/d0fo01663b
6. Lin Li, Yueli Chen, Danyang Jiao, Shuhua Yang, Lin Li, Peng Li (2020). Protective Effect of Astaxanthin on Ochratoxin A-Induced Kidney Injury to Mice by Regulating Oxidative Stress-Related NRF2/KEAP1 Pathway. Molecules, 25, . Link: 10.3390/molecules25061386
7. M. Hormozi, Shadi Ghoreishi, P. Baharvand (2019). Astaxanthin induces apoptosis and increases activity of antioxidant enzymes in LS-180 cells. Artificial Cells, Nanomedicine, and Biotechnology, 47, 891 - 895. Link: 10.1080/21691401.2019.1580286
8. H. Choi, Y. Youn, W. Shin (2011). Positive Effects of Astaxanthin on Lipid Profiles and Oxidative Stress in Overweight Subjects. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 66, 363-369. Link: 10.1007/s11130-011-0258-9
9. Suhuan Mei, Xiaokun Song, Yali Wang, Jun Wang, Shufang Su, Jianhua Zhu, Yue Geng (2019). Studies on Protection of Astaxanthin from Oxidative Damage Induced by H2O2 in RAW264.7 Cells Based on 1H NMR Metabolomics.. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, , . Link: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b04587
10. Yue Yang, J. Seo, A. Nguyen, T. Pham, H. J. Park, Youngki Park, Bohkyung Kim, R. Bruno, Jiyoung Lee (2011). Astaxanthin-rich extract from the green alga Haematococcus pluvialis lowers plasma lipid concentrations and enhances antioxidant defense in apolipoprotein E knockout mice.. The Journal of nutrition, 141 9,
    1611-7 . Link: 10.3945/jn.111.142109
11. A. Saeidi, Akbar Nouri-Habashi, Omid Razi, Ali Ataeinosrat, Hiwa Rahmani, S. S. Mollabashi, Behnam Bagherzadeh-Rahmani, Shahin Mahmoudi Aghdam, Leila Khalajzadeh, M. A. Al Kiyumi, A. Hackney, I. Laher, K. Heinrich, H. Zouhal (2023). Astaxanthin Supplemented with High-Intensity Functional Training Decreases Adipokines Levels and Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Men with Obesity. Nutrients, 15, . Link: 10.3390/nu15020286
12. Masaki Kimura, M. Iida, H. Yamauchi, Masato Suzuki, T. Shibasaki, Yoshimasa Saito, H. Saito (2014). Astaxanthin supplementation effects on adipocyte size and lipid profile in OLETF rats with hyperphagia and visceral fat accumulation. Journal of Functional Foods, 11, 114-120. Link: 10.1016/J.JFF.2014.08.001
13. F. Zhuge, Y. Ni, Chunyan Wan, Fen Liu, Z. Fu (2020). Anti-diabetic effects of astaxanthin on an STZ-induced diabetic model in rats.. Endocrine journal, , . Link: 10.1507/endocrj.ej20-0699
14. T. Yuri, K. Yoshizawa, Y. Emoto, Y. Kinoshita, M. Yuki, A. Tsubura (2016). Effects of Dietary Xanthophylls, Canthaxanthin and Astaxanthin on N-Methyl-N-nitrosourea-induced Rat Mammary Carcinogenesis.. In vivo, 30 6,
    795-800 . Link: 10.21873/INVIVO.10996
15. Y. Kishimoto, H. Yoshida, K. Kondo (2016). Potential Anti-Atherosclerotic Properties of Astaxanthin. Marine Drugs, 14, . Link: 10.3390/md14020035
16. G. Hussein, T. Nakagawa, H. Goto, Y. Shimada, Kinzo Matsumoto, U. Sankawa, H. Watanabe (2007). Astaxanthin ameliorates features of metabolic syndrome in SHR/NDmcr-cp.. Life sciences, 80 6,
    522-9 . Link: 10.1016/J.LFS.2006.09.041
17. R. Supriya, S. R. Shishvan, Movahed Kefayati, Hossein Abednatanzi, Omid Razi, R. Bagheri, Kurt A. Escobar, Zhaleh Pashaei, A. Saeidi, Shahnaz Shahrbanian, Sovan Bagchi, P. Sengupta, M. A. Al Kiyumi, Katie M. Heinrich, H. Zouhal (2023). Astaxanthin Supplementation Augments the Benefits of CrossFit Workouts on Semaphorin 3C and Other Adipokines in Males with Obesity. Nutrients, 15, . Link: 10.3390/nu15224803
18. S. Boshra (2021). Astaxanthin Attenuates Adiponectin, Calprotectin, miRNA222 and miRNA378 in Obesity induced by High-Fat Diet in Rats.. Current pharmaceutical biotechnology, , . Link: 10.2174/1389201022666210810105804
19. Nafiseh Sokri Mashhadi, Mehrnoosh Zakerkish, J. Mohammadiasl, M. Zarei, M. Mohammadshahi, M. Haghighizadeh (2018). Astaxanthin improves glucose metabolism and reduces blood pressure in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.. Asia Pacific journal of clinical nutrition, 27 2,
    341-346 . Link: 10.6133/apjcn.052017.11
20. H. Yoshida, H. Yanai, Kumie Ito, Y. Tomono, Takashi Koikeda, Hiroki Tsukahara, N. Tada (2010). Administration of natural astaxanthin increases serum HDL-cholesterol and adiponectin in subjects with mild hyperlipidemia.. Atherosclerosis, 209 2,
    520-3 . Link: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2009.10.012
21. M. Santocono, M. Zurria, Marco Berrettini, D. Fedeli, G. Falcioni (2006). Influence of astaxanthin, zeaxanthin and lutein on DNA damage and repair in UVA-irradiated cells.. Journal of photochemistry and photobiology. B, Biology, 85 3,
    205-15 . Link: 10.1016/J.JPHOTOBIOL.2006.07.009
22. D. Tripathi, Gopabandhu Jena (2009). Intervention of astaxanthin against cyclophosphamide-induced oxidative stress and DNA damage: a study in mice.. Chemico-biological interactions, 180 3,
    398-406 . Link: 10.1016/j.cbi.2009.03.017
23. Dilek Aşcı Çelik, Vehbi Atahan Toğay (2023). In vivo protective efficacy of astaxanthin against ionizing radiation‐induced DNA damage. Chemical Biology & Drug Design, 102, 882 - 888. Link: 10.1111/cbdd.14321
24. S. Sudharshan, Madhu Dyavaiah (2020). Astaxanthin protects oxidative stress mediated DNA damage and enhances longevity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Biogerontology, 22, 81 - 100. Link: 10.1007/s10522-020-09904-9
25. Qian Wang, Yingyuan Zhao, Lei Guan, Yaping Zhang, Qifeng Dang, P. Dong, Jing Li, Xingguo Liang (2017). Preparation of astaxanthin-loaded DNA/chitosan nanoparticles for improved cellular uptake and antioxidation capability.. Food chemistry, 227,
    9-15 . Link: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.01.081
26. J. Park, J. Chyun, Yoo-Kyung Kim, L. Line, B. Chew (2010). Astaxanthin decreased oxidative stress and inflammation and enhanced immune response in humans. Nutrition & Metabolism, 7, 18 - 18. Link: 10.1186/1743-7075-7-18
27. M. Santocono, M. Zurria, Marco Berrettini, D. Fedeli, G. Falcioni (2007). Lutein, zeaxanthin and astaxanthin protect against DNA damage in SK-N-SH human neuroblastoma cells induced by reactive nitrogen species.. Journal of photochemistry and photobiology. B, Biology, 88 1,
    1-10 . Link: 10.1016/J.JPHOTOBIOL.2007.04.007
28. D. Tripathi, G. Jena (2010). Astaxanthin intervention ameliorates cyclophosphamide-induced oxidative stress, DNA damage and early hepatocarcinogenesis in rat: role of Nrf2, p53, p38 and phase-II enzymes.. Mutation research, 696 1,
    69-80 . Link: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2009.12.014
29. D. Кurinnyi, S. Rushkovsky, O. Demchenko, M. Pilinska, Kyiv Ukraine (2017). Study the impact of astaxanthin on developing of genomic instability in human peripheral blood lymphocytes irradiated in vitro on G2 phase of cell cycle.. Problemy radiatsiinoi medytsyny ta radiobiolohii, 22,
    208-215 . Link: 10.33145/2304-8336-2017-22-208-215
30. D. Kurinnyi, S. Rushkovsky, O. Demchenko, M. Pilinska (2018). Peculiarities of modification by astaxanthin of radiation-induced damages in the genome of human blood lymphocytes exposed in vitro on different stages of the mitotic cycle. Cytology and Genetics, 52, 40 - 45. Link: 10.3103/S0095452718010073
31. D. Brown, Ashley R Warner, S. Deb, L. Gough, S. A. Sparks, L. Mcnaughton (2020). The effect of astaxanthin supplementation on performance and fat oxidation during a 40 km cycling time trial.. Journal of science and medicine in sport, , . Link: 10.1016/j.jsams.2020.06.017
32. M. McAllister, Joni A. Mettler, K. Patek, M. Butawan, R. Bloomer (2021). Astaxanthin Supplementation Increases Glutathione Concentrations but Does Not Impact Fat Oxidation During Exercise in Active Young Men.. International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism, ,
    1-8 . Link: 10.1123/ijsnem.2021-0138
33. E. Pogorzelska, Jolanta Godziszewska, M. Brodowska, A. Wierzbicka (2018). Antioxidant potential of Haematococcus pluvialis extract rich in astaxanthin on colour and oxidative stability of raw ground pork meat during refrigerated storage.. Meat science, 135,
    54-61 . Link: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2017.09.002
34. Han Liu, Xuguang Zhang, Jie Xiao, Mingyue Song, Yong Cao, Hang Xiao, Xiaojuan Liu (2020). Astaxanthin attenuates d-galactose-induced brain aging in rats by ameliorating oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and regulating metabolic markers.. Food & function, , . Link: 10.1039/d0fo00633e
35. I. Baralic, B. Djordjevic, N. Dikić, J. Kotur-Stevuljević, S. Spasić, Z. Jelić-Ivanović, N. Radivojević, M. Andjelkovic, S. Pejić (2012). Effect of Astaxanthin Supplementation on Paraoxonase 1 Activities and Oxidative Stress Status in Young Soccer Players. Phytotherapy Research, 27, . Link: 10.1002/ptr.4898
36. Yue Yang, J. Seo, A. Nguyen, T. Pham, H. J. Park, Youngki Park, Bohkyung Kim, R. Bruno, Jiyoung Lee (2011). Astaxanthin-rich extract from the green alga Haematococcus pluvialis lowers plasma lipid concentrations and enhances antioxidant defense in apolipoprotein E knockout mice.. The Journal of nutrition, 141 9,
    1611-7 . Link: 10.3945/jn.111.142109
37. B. Djordjevic, I. Baralic, J. Kotur-Stevuljević, A. Stefanović, J. Ivanišević, N. Radivojević, M. Andjelkovic, N. Dikić (2012). Effect of astaxanthin supplementation on muscle damage and oxidative stress markers in elite young soccer players.. The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness, 52 4,
    382-92 . Link:
38. Peter T. Res, N. Cermak, Rudi Stinkens, T. J. Tollakson, G. Haenen, A. Bast, L. V. van Loon (2013). Astaxanthin supplementation does not augment fat use or improve endurance performance.. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 45 6,
    1158-65 . Link: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e31827fddc4
39. D. E. Carballo, I. Caro, S. Andrés, F. Giráldez, J. Mateo (2018). Assessment of the antioxidant effect of astaxanthin in fresh, frozen and cooked lamb patties.. Food research international, 111,
    342-350 . Link: 10.1016/j.foodres.2018.05.054
40. Suhuan Mei, Xiaokun Song, Yali Wang, Jun Wang, Shufang Su, Jianhua Zhu, Yue Geng (2019). Studies on Protection of Astaxanthin from Oxidative Damage Induced by H2O2 in RAW264.7 Cells Based on 1H NMR Metabolomics.. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, , . Link: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b04587
41. Yaoyao Jia, Chunyan Wu, Jiyoung Kim, Bobae Kim, Sung-Joon Lee (2016). Astaxanthin reduces hepatic lipid accumulations in high-fat-fed C57BL/6J mice via activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) alpha and inhibition of PPAR gamma and Akt.. The Journal of nutritional biochemistry, 28,
    9-18 . Link: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2015.09.015
42. J. Karppi, T. Rissanen, K. Nyyssönen, J. Kaikkonen, A. Olsson, S. Voutilainen, J. Salonen (2007). Effects of astaxanthin supplementation on lipid peroxidation.. International journal for vitamin and nutrition research. Internationale Zeitschrift fur Vitamin- und Ernahrungsforschung. Journal international de vitaminologie et de nutrition, 77 1,
    3-11 . Link: 10.1024/0300-9831.77.1.3
43. C. M. Mano, T. Guaratini, Karina H. M. Cardozo, P. Colepicolo, E. Bechara, M. P. Barros (2018). Astaxanthin Restrains Nitrative-Oxidative Peroxidation in Mitochondrial-Mimetic Liposomes: A Pre-Apoptosis Model. Marine Drugs, 16, . Link: 10.3390/md16040126
44. N. Rizzardi, L. Pezzolesi, C. Samorì, Federica Senese, Chiara Zalambani, Walter Pitacco, N. Calonghi, C. Bergamini, Cecilia Prata, R. Fato (2022). Natural Astaxanthin Is a Green Antioxidant Able to Counteract Lipid Peroxidation and Ferroptotic Cell Death. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 23, . Link: 10.3390/ijms232315137
45. P. Palozza, N. Krinsky (1992). Astaxanthin and canthaxanthin are potent antioxidants in a membrane model.. Archives of biochemistry and biophysics, 297 2,
    291-5 . Link: 10.1016/0003-9861(92)90675-M
46. I. Nishigaki, A. Dmitrovskii, W. Miki, K. Yagi (1994). Suppressive effect of astaxanthin on lipid peroxidation induced in rats. Journal of Clinical Biochemistry and Nutrition, 16, 161-166. Link: 10.3164/JCBN.16.161
47. T. Takimoto, Kazuaki Takahashi, Yasutada Akiba (2007). Effect of dietary supplementation of astaxanthin by Phaffia rhodozyma on lipid peroxidation, drug metabolism and some immunological variables in male broiler chicks fed on diets with or without oxidised fat. British Poultry Science, 48, 90 - 97. Link: 10.1080/00071660601156453
48. Shan Gao, Runnan Li, Nuo Heng, Yu Chen, Liang Wang, Zheng Li, Yong Guo, Xihui Sheng, Xiangguo Wang, K. Xing, Hemin Ni, Xiaolong Qi (2020). Effects of dietary supplementation of natural astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis on antioxidant capacity, lipid metabolism, and accumulation in the egg yolk of laying hens. Poultry Science, 99, 5874 - 5882. Link: 10.1016/j.psj.2020.08.029
49. Y. Ni, M. Nagashimada, F. Zhuge, Lili Zhan, N. Nagata, A. Tsutsui, Y. Nakanuma, S. Kaneko, Tsuguhito Ota (2015). Astaxanthin prevents and reverses diet-induced insulin resistance and steatohepatitis in mice: A comparison with vitamin E. Scientific Reports, 5, . Link: 10.1038/srep17192
50. Di Wu, Hao Xu, Jinyao Chen, Lishi Zhang (2019). Effects of Astaxanthin Supplementation on Oxidative Stress.. International journal for vitamin and nutrition research. Internationale Zeitschrift fur Vitamin- und Ernahrungsforschung. Journal international de vitaminologie et de nutrition, ,
    1-16 . Link: 10.1024/0300-9831/a000497
51. Xiangyu Zhou, Qingming Cao, C. Orfila, Jian Zhao, Lin Zhang (2021). Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis on the Effects of Astaxanthin on Human Skin Ageing. Nutrients, 13, . Link: 10.3390/nu13092917
52. H. Yoon, H. Cho, Soyun Cho, Serah Lee, M. Shin, J. Chung (2014). Supplementating with dietary astaxanthin combined with collagen hydrolysate improves facial elasticity and decreases matrix metalloproteinase-1 and -12 expression: a comparative study with placebo.. Journal of medicinal food, 17 7,
    810-6 . Link: 10.1089/jmf.2013.3060
53. N. Chalyk, V. Klochkov, T. Bandaletova, N. Kyle, I. Petyaev (2017). Continuous astaxanthin intake reduces oxidative stress and reverses age-related morphological changes of residual skin surface components in middle-aged volunteers.. Nutrition research, 48,
    40-48 . Link: 10.1016/j.nutres.2017.10.006
54. Naoki Ito, S. Seki, Fumitaka Ueda (2018). The Protective Role of Astaxanthin for UV-Induced Skin Deterioration in Healthy People—A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial. Nutrients, 10, . Link: 10.3390/nu10070817
55. K. Singh, Saiprasad Patil, H. Barkate (2020). Protective effects of astaxanthin on skin: Recent scientific evidence, possible mechanisms, and potential indications. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology, 19, 22 - 27. Link: 10.1111/jocd.13019
56. S. Davinelli, M. E. Nielsen, G. Scapagnini (2018). Astaxanthin in Skin Health, Repair, and Disease: A Comprehensive Review. Nutrients, 10, . Link: 10.3390/nu10040522
57. Q. Ng, Michelle Lee Zhi Qing De Deyn, Wayren Loke, Nadine Xinhui Foo, H. W. Chan, W. Yeo (2020). Effects of Astaxanthin Supplementation on Skin Health: A Systematic Review of Clinical Studies. Journal of Dietary Supplements, 18, 169 - 182. Link: 10.1080/19390211.2020.1739187
58. M. Honda, H. Kageyama, Yelin Zhang, Takashi Hibino, M. Goto (2022). Oral Supplementation with Z-Isomer-Rich Astaxanthin Inhibits Ultraviolet Light-Induced Skin Damage in Guinea Pigs. Marine Drugs, 20, . Link: 10.3390/md20070414
59. Hiroki Tsukahara, Akimasa Matsuyama, T. Abe, H. Kyo, T. Ohta, N. Suzuki (2016). Effects of Intake of Astaxanthin Contained Drink on Skin Condition. Japanese Journal of Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 13, 57-62. Link: 10.1625/JCAM.13.57
60. Kumi Tominaga, Nobuko Hongo, Mariko Karato, E. Yamashita (2012). Cosmetic benefits of astaxanthin on humans subjects.. Acta biochimica Polonica, 59 1,
    43-7 . Link: 10.18388/ABP.2012_2168
61. Q. Ng, Michelle Lee Zhi Qing De Deyn, Wayren Loke, Nadine Xinhui Foo, H. W. Chan, W. Yeo (2020). Effects of Astaxanthin Supplementation on Skin Health: A Systematic Review of Clinical Studies. Journal of Dietary Supplements, 18, 169 - 182. Link: 10.1080/19390211.2020.1739187
62. M. Honda, H. Kageyama, Yelin Zhang, Takashi Hibino, M. Goto (2022). Oral Supplementation with Z-Isomer-Rich Astaxanthin Inhibits Ultraviolet Light-Induced Skin Damage in Guinea Pigs. Marine Drugs, 20, . Link: 10.3390/md20070414
63. N. Chalyk, V. Klochkov, T. Bandaletova, N. Kyle, I. Petyaev (2017). Continuous astaxanthin intake reduces oxidative stress and reverses age-related morphological changes of residual skin surface components in middle-aged volunteers.. Nutrition research, 48,
    40-48 . Link: 10.1016/j.nutres.2017.10.006
64. Hiroki Tsukahara, Akimasa Matsuyama, T. Abe, H. Kyo, T. Ohta, N. Suzuki (2016). Effects of Intake of Astaxanthin Contained Drink on Skin Condition. Japanese Journal of Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 13, 57-62. Link: 10.1625/JCAM.13.57
65. Kumi Tominaga, Nobuko Hongo, Mayuko Fujishita, Yuko Takahashi, Yukio Adachi (2017). Protective effects of astaxanthin on skin deterioration. Journal of Clinical Biochemistry and Nutrition, 61, 33 - 39. Link: 10.3164/jcbn.17-35
66. Naoki Ito, S. Seki, Fumitaka Ueda (2018). The Protective Role of Astaxanthin for UV-Induced Skin Deterioration in Healthy People—A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial. Nutrients, 10, . Link: 10.3390/nu10070817
67. Xiangyu Zhou, Qingming Cao, C. Orfila, Jian Zhao, Lin Zhang (2021). Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis on the Effects of Astaxanthin on Human Skin Ageing. Nutrients, 13, . Link: 10.3390/nu13092917
68. K. Singh, Saiprasad Patil, H. Barkate (2020). Protective effects of astaxanthin on skin: Recent scientific evidence, possible mechanisms, and potential indications. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology, 19, 22 - 27. Link: 10.1111/jocd.13019
69. S. Davinelli, M. E. Nielsen, G. Scapagnini (2018). Astaxanthin in Skin Health, Repair, and Disease: A Comprehensive Review. Nutrients, 10, . Link: 10.3390/nu10040522
70. H. Yoon, H. Cho, Soyun Cho, Serah Lee, M. Shin, J. Chung (2014). Supplementating with dietary astaxanthin combined with collagen hydrolysate improves facial elasticity and decreases matrix metalloproteinase-1 and -12 expression: a comparative study with placebo.. Journal of medicinal food, 17 7,
    810-6 . Link: 10.1089/jmf.2013.3060